History of Islamic art

Islamic art refers to the visual arts created since the 7th century by people who lived in the area that was inhabited or ruled by Islamic people. This makes it a complicated art as it spans across many different countries and a variety of people over 1,400 years. It’s not a specific art of a religion or of a specific period, or of a location, or even that of one medium, such as painting. The vast world that is Islamic Architecture is topic of a separate article that covers fields as diverse like calligraphy, art pottery, glass, and textile arts, such as embroidery and carpets.

Islamic art evolved from a variety of different sources. Roman, Early Christian art as well as Byzantine styles were incorporated into early Islamic architecture and art; influences from the Sassanian art of the pre-Islamic Persia was significant; Central Asian styles were introduced through numerous nomadic incursions. Chinese influences had a profound impact on Islamic pottery, painting, as well as textiles.” While the entire idea”Islamic art “Islamic art” is criticized by some contemporary art historians who call it an “figment that is a figment of the imagination” or as a “mirage” but the similarities between artworks created across a wide range of times and in different places of the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age and the Golden Age of Islam, have been enough to keep the term widely used by academics.

Beginnings

Pre-dynastic
The fast expansion during the Islamic period is an exact beginning for the term for Islamic art. The initial geographical boundaries of Islamic culture were found in the present day Syria. It’s difficult to differentiate the earliest Islamic objects from the earlier ones from Persian as well as Sassanid or Byzantine art. The transformation of the majority people, as well as artists, took a long time, often for centuries following the first Muslim conquerors. It was also notable that there was the production of significant quantities of unglazed pottery, as demonstrated by a famous small vessel kept in the Louvre and whose inscription confirms that it is attributed in its Islamic period. The motifs of plants were the main focus of the early ceramics.

Influences of the Sassanian art tradition are evident in the depiction of the King as a warrior, and the Lion as a symbol of the virility and nobility. Bedouin tribal traditions mingled with more sophisticated styles of the conquered areas. The first period coins featured human figures depicted in their Byzantine as well as Sassanian style, possibly to assure users of their value prior to the Islamic style of lettering became popular.

Umayyad
Civic and religious architecture was created during the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) in which new ideas and plans were implemented.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is among the most significant buildings in the entire field of Islamic architecture. It is characterized by a distinct Byzantine impression (mosaic against gold backdrop and a central design similar to The Church of the Holy Sepulchre) however, it is also adorned with exclusively Islamic elements, like the magnificent epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces of Jordan as well as Syria (for instance, Mshatta, Qasr Amra as well as Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living spaces reception halls, halls for guests, baths, and were decorated, with some murals in order to create the image of a royal palace.

Ceramics work was quite primitive (unglazed) in this time. Metal objects have survived however it is difficult to distinguish these items from those belonging to the pre-Islamic period.

‘Abd al-Malik introduced standard coins which featured Arabic inscriptions, not pictures of monarchs. The rapid development of a localized currency around that time period of the Rock’s creation illustrates the change in the direction of Umayyad Acculturation. This time period witnessed the beginning of a particular Islamic art.

In the period of this, Umayyad artists and artisans didn’t invent a new language, but started to favor the ones they had learned by Mediterranean as well as Iranian late antiquity. They then adapted these to their own conceptions of art. For instance, the mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus are built on Byzantine models, but substitute the figurative elements with pictures of cities and trees. The desert palaces are a testimony to these influences. Through blending the diverse traditions they were able to inherit and by adapting the architectural and motifs art, they created not much of a traditional Muslim art form, which is particularly evident in the design of the arabesque. This is found on monuments as well as in the Qur’an illuminated.

Abbasid
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD – 1258) saw the move to the capital city to Damascus to Baghdad and later to Baghdad towards Samarra. The transition to Baghdad was a major influence on culture, politics and art. The historian of art Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the shift to the genesis of the concept of “Islamic Rome” as the combination of Eastern influences with the influences of Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese and Indian sources created a brand new model that was the basis for Islamic art. Classical designs originated by Byzantine Europe along with Greco-Roman sources were eliminated to make way for those drawn from the modern Islamic hub. The layout for the new city Baghdad was ascribed to its place in the “navel in the middle of this world” according to historians of the 9th century al-Ya’qubi wrote.

The city of Baghdad can’t be excavated efficiently because it is located under the present city. But, Abbasid Samarra, which was mostly abandoned was extensively researched and is famous for its preserved stucco reliefs where the early history of the arabesque is identified. Motifs found in the stucco of Samarra can be used to date constructions that have been constructed elsewhere. They are also discovered on portable objects especially in wood dating from Egypt up to Iran.

Samarra was witness to the “coming of the age” in Islamic art. The use of painted stucco in polychrome allowed the experimentation of new designs of carving and moulding. It was the Abbasid period also saw two significant developments in the field of ceramics including the invention of faience and metallic lusterware. Hadithic restriction on the use of gold or silver vessel led to creation of metallic lusterware in pottery which was produced by mixing metallic oxides and sulphur to vinegar and ochre. It was applied to a coated vessel and fired again. It was costly, and it was difficult to control the second firing through the kiln, however the desire to go beyond the quality of Chinese porcelain was the catalyst for the invention of this method.

Although the impression regarding Abbasid artistic production is centered mostly upon pottery production, in reality the biggest advancement in the Abbasid period was the textiles. The government-run workshops, called tiraz were able to produce silks bearing the moniker of the monarch, which allowed the aristocratic class to demonstrate that they were loyal to their monarch. Silks that were not depicted in pictures. Silkware’s value for wall decor, entrance ornamentation, and separation of rooms was not as significant as its value as cash in this “silk path”.

Calligraphy was first used to decorate the surfaces of pottery at this time. The Illuminated Qur’ans were the focus of attention as letter forms became more complex with stylized designs to the point that they slow how words are recognized.

Medieval period (9th-15th centuries)
In the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces that were most distant from the Iraqi central region. The establishment of a Shi’a dynasty from northern African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads from Spain and Spain, gave strength to the opposition along with small dynasties as well as autonomy governors throughout Iran.

Spain along with the Maghreb
The first Islamic Dynasty to establish its own within Spain (or al-Andalus) was one belonging to Al-Andalus or Spanish Umayyads. The name of the dynasty suggests that they came from the great Umayyads from Syria. Following their demise they were replaced by they were replaced by the Spanish Umayyads were replaced with diverse autonomous kingdoms, including the Taifas (1031-91) however, the artistic output of this time period isn’t different substantially from that of the Umayyads. In the late 11th century two Berber tribes known as those of the Almoravids as well as the Almohads took over the head of the Maghreb and Spain and Spain, each time bringing Maghrebi influences into the art world. A string of victories won by Christian monarchs had brought down Islamic Spain at the close in the fourteenth century. its city Granada under the rule of the Nasirid family, who were able to keep their grip until 1492.

Al-Andalus was a renowned cultural hub during The Middle Ages. In addition to the great universities that were able to teach philosophies and sciences that were unheard of within Christendom (such as the one of Averroes) The region was also a vital hub for the arts.

There were a variety of techniques employed in the production of objects. Ivory was widely used in making caskets and boxes. The pyxis from al-Mughira’s is a masterpiece of this kind. Metalworkers created large, elaborate circular sculptures typically rare within this part of the Islamic world, were used as elaborate water receptacles or fountain spouts. Many fabrics, including silks, were shipped abroad and are now found in the treasuries of churches of Christendom which served as covers for saints as shrines. Through the time of Maghrebi rule, one can also observe a desire for sculptured and painted woodwork.

Art of northern Africa is not well understood. There is a lack of understanding about the Almoravid and Almohad dynasties have the tendency to be minimalist and simplicity, as is evident in mosques with walls that were bare. But, luxurious art was still produced in large quantities. It was the Marinid as well as the Hafsid dynasties created an important, though unexplored architecture as well as a large amount of sculpted and painted woodwork.

Arab Mashriq
The Fatimid Dynasty, who ruled in Egypt between 909 and 1171 introduced knowledge and craft from the politically unstable Baghdad through Cairo.

By 1070 in the year 1070, the Seljuks were the dominant political power within the Muslim world after liberating Baghdad in 1070 and defeated Byzantines during the battle of Manzikert. Under the reign by Malik Shah the Seljuks excelled in architecture , and at the same as in Syria as the atabegs (governors of the Seljuk princes) were elected to the power. They were quite independent, and took advantage of conflicts with Frankish crusaders. The year 1171 was when Saladin took over Fatimid Egypt and crowned the transitional Ayyubid Dynasty to the throne. The time is famous for its innovations in metallurgy as well as the wide-spread production of Damascus daggers and swords made of steel and production ceramics. metalwork and glass of excellent quality were made without interruption. Enameled glass became a key craft.

In 1250 in 1250, the Mamluks took control of Egypt over the Ayyubids in 1251 and had gained a foothold in Syria and also their most well-known leader was Baibars. The Mamluks weren’t an actual Dynasty since they didn’t have an ancestral line of succession. In fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves who (in the theory) handed over the power over to those with similar status. The system of government lasted for three centuries, up to 1517, which led to a wealth of architecture projects (many hundreds of buildings were built during this time) and patronage for the fine arts was mostly centered around enameled glass and work, and is referred to as the golden period of the medieval period in Egypt. The “Baptistere of Saint-Louis” located in the Louvre is an example of the superior quality of metalwork in the time.

Iran as well as Central Asia
In Iran and in the north of India The Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Ghurids competed for power in the 10th century and art was a key aspect of the battle. Cities of immense size were constructed like Nishapur and Ghazni as well as the building of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would be built in sporadic and irregular fashion over a period of many centuries) was begun. Funerary architecture also was cultivated and potters created their own distinctive styles: kaleidoscopic decorations on a yellow background or marbled ornaments that were created by permitting colored glazes to run and painting using many layers of slip underneath the glaze.

Seljuqs, nomadic tribes who were of Turkic origin, originating from modern-day Mongolia began to appear on the stages of Islamic history towards the end decade of 10th century. They captured Baghdad in 1048, and then being exiled in 1194 Iran but their production of “Seljuq” artifacts continued until the close of the 12th and the beginning in the thirteenth century, under the patronage of smaller patrons and sovereigns. In their time, the political, cultural, and art production moved to Damascus in the middle of Baghdad towards Merv, Nishapur, Rayy and Isfahan All of them located in Iran.

Popular patronage increased due to the growing economy and urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture were more likely to be more focused on the patrons of the work. For instance, sultans, the viziers, or officials of lower rank are often mentioned in the inscriptions of mosques. In addition, the rise of the mass market and sales of artwork made it more widespread and available to professionals and merchants. As a result of the increasing production, a number of artifacts are still in use from the Seljuk time period and can be easily dateable. However, the date older works are less clear. Therefore, it is easy to confuse Seljuk art as a modern development instead of inheritance from earlier Iranian as well as Turkic sources.

Ceramics innovations from this time period include the creation of minai ware as well as the creation of vessels not made of clay, but from the silicon-based paste (“fritware”) and metalworkers started to encrust bronze using precious metals. Through the Seljuk period that spans between Iran to Iraq an union of book painting can be observed. The paintings depict animals that carry a powerful symbolic meaning of treachery, fidelity, and strength.

In the 13th century, during the 13th century, Mongols under the direction of Genghis Khan took over all of the Islamic world. Following his death, his empire was divided between his sons, and he created a number of Dynasties including for instance, the Yuan in China and the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and the southern part of Russia.

Ilkhanids
A flourishing civilization was established under the rule of these “little Khans” who were subordinate to Yuan Emperor, however they soon began to gain independence. The pace of architectural development accelerated during the time that the Mongols were sedentary and kept traces of their nomadic past like their north-south orientation in structures. The same time, an era of “iranisation” was taking place as well as construction in accordance with earlier established designs like”Iranian plan” mosques “Iranian plans” mosques, were reintroduced. Art of the Persian book was also developed under the dynasty of this period, and was supported by the an aristocratic patronage of huge manuscripts, such as the Jami’al-tawarikh written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Ceramics were redesigned with new techniques in the form of lajvardina (a variation of luster-ware) as well as Chinese influence is evident across all disciplines.

The Golden Horde and the Timurids
The early art that were practiced by the nomadic people of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. The research is just beginning and evidence of urban architecture and planning is being discovered. Also, there was a large production of gold-colored works that often display a significant Chinese influence. The majority of these works are kept in the Hermitage.

The start of the third stage of the medieval Iranian art and culture, the period of the Timurids and the Timurids, is marked with the emergence of a third tribe of nomadic tribes under the leadership of Timur. In the 15th century, this dynasty brought about an era of glory of Persian manuscript painting, which included famous painters like Kamal ud-Din Behzad, but as well as a variety of patrons and workshops.

Syria, Iraq, Anatolia
It is believed that the Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia and won an victory against the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert (1071) and establishing an independent sultanate that was not part of its Iranian lineage of the dynasty. Their influence appears to have diminished following the Mongol invasion in 1243, yet coins were produced under their names up to 1304. Architecture and objects combined diverse styles and styles, including Iranian and Syrian which sometimes made accurate derivations difficult. The craft of woodworking was developed and at the very least, one illustration manuscript dates back to the time of this writing.

Caravanserais were a common sight along the main trade routes in the region, positioned between the hours of travel. The building of these caravanserai hotels increased in size the fortifications, their durability, and their replicability. They also started to include central mosques.

The Turkmen were nomadic people who resided in the region that is Lake Van. They were the builders of several mosques, like Tabriz’s Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and they exerted a major influence after the death of Anatolia’s Seljuqs. In the 13th century Anatolia was ruled by tiny Turkmen families, who gradually reduced Byzantine territory. Gradually, a larger dynasty was born, one of the Ottomans and, from 1450, are known by the name of “first Ottomans”. Turkmen art works can be seen as the precursors to Ottoman art, particularly those of the “Milet” ceramics, as well as the first blue and white Anatolian artifacts.

Islamic book painting was a part of the beginning of its golden age during the 13th century, mainly of Syria in the Middle East and Iraq. Influence of Byzantine visually based vocabulary (blue with gold coloration, beautiful and triumphant motifs, symbolic of drapery) in combination with Mongoloid facial styles in 12th-century frontispieces of books.

The earlier coins typically included Arabic epigraphs. But as Ayyubid society evolved into more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coins started to incorporate the astrological and figural (featuring the various Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish busts of rulers) and animal-related images.

Hillenbrand claims that the medieval Islamic texts known as Maqamat that were illustrated and copied by Yahya Ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the first “coffee book for the table”. The Maqamat were among the first books that held a mirror of daily life as depicted in Islamic art, telling comical stories and showing the bare minimum of artistic traditions.

South Asia
It is believed that the Indian subcontinent, with a few northern regions that were was conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids during the early 9th century didn’t be declared independent until the year 1206, when Muizzi slave-kings took over the power, resulting in the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate. In the following years, other sultanates competing with Delhi were established within Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north of Deccan (the Bahmanids). They drew themselves small distance from Persian practices, leading to a fresh design of urbanism and architecture that was characterized by the interaction in Hindu art. The study of the making of objects is not yet fully underway yet, however, the thriving technique of illuminated manuscripts is well-known. The sultanate period was ended when the arrival of the Mughals who gradually seized their territory.

The Three Empires

Ottomans
The Ottoman Empire was founded in the 14th century. Its origins are in the fourteenth century remained up until the time of World War I. The long-lasting existence, coupled with an enormous geographical area (stretching across Anatolia across to Tunisia) that naturally led to an important and distinctive art form that included numerous construction, massive production of ceramics, both vessels and tiles, especially Iznik pottery, significant jewelry and metalwork, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries as well as exceptional Ottoman miniatures, as well as ornamental Ottoman illumination.

The masterpieces from Ottoman manuscript illustration are the two “books of celebrations” (Surname-I Humayun) the first of which dates from the the 16th century and one from the time of Sultan Murad III. The books are filled with illustrations and display a distinct Safavid influence. They could have been influenced by the books that were published in the time of the Ottoman-Safavid wars in the sixteenth century.

They Ottomans are also famous for their invention of a vibrant red color, “Iznik red”, in ceramics. It was at its peak during the 16th century in both pottery and tile work with floral designs which were significantly altered in comparison to Chinese and Persian designs. The 18th century was when Ottoman art was influenced by European influence, with the Turks adopting a version of Rococo that had a long-lasting and unfavorable result, leading to a flurry of decorations.

Mughals
The Mughal Empire in India ran from 1526 until (technically) 1858 but in the 17th century, power shifted from emperors to local rulers and then to European power, and most notably that of the British Raj, who were the dominant power in India at the end of the 18th century. The time is renowned for the luxuries of the court and Mughal styles significantly influence the local Hindu as well as later Sikh rulers too. The Mughal miniatures began with the importation of Persian artists, specifically the group of artists brought by Humayun after his the exile of Safavid Persia, but soon local artists, mainly Hindu were educated in the Mughal style. Realistic portraiture, as well as pictures of plants and animals were developed in Mughal art that was more than what the Persians had achieved to date and the scale of miniatures was increased, and sometimes on canvas. The Mughal court was able to access European prints as well as other artwork which had an increasing influence as evidenced by gradually introducing elements of Western perspective and the wide range of postures for the human figure. Certain Western pictures were copied or taken from. When the courts of local Nawabs were established distinct provincial styles that had more influences from the traditional Indian painting were developed within each of the Muslim and Hindu royal courts.

The art of jewelry and the carving of hardstones like jade, jasper decorated with rubies diamonds and emeralds were mentioned by Mughal chronicler Abu’l Fazl, and a variety of examples are preserved as well as the series of daggers made from hard stone that are shaped like heads of horses is especially striking.

It is believed that the Mughals were also master metallurgists. and brought in Damascus steel as well as refined the locally made Wootz Steel. The Mughals were also the first to introduce the “bidri” method of metalwork, where silver-colored motifs are set against black backgrounds. Famous Mughal metalurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi designed the seamless celestial planets.

Safavids and Qajars
It is believed that the Iranian Safavids a lineage that ran from 1501 to 1786 distinct from the Mughal as well as Ottoman Empires and the previous Persian rulers, mainly due to the Shi’a religion of its shahs. made the most popular denomination in Persia. Ceramics are characterized by the influences from Chinese porcelain, usually executed in white and blue. Architecture was flourishing, reaching an apex in the construction plan that was undertaken by Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which comprised numerous gardens and palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an enormous bazaar, as well as an enormous imperial mosque.

The art of illuminated manuscripts has also reached new heights particularly within the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an massive reproduction of Ferdowsi’s poem that contains more than 250 drawings. At the turn of 17th-century,, a new kind of painting developed that is based on an album (muraqqa). Albums were the work of connoisseurs who joined single sheets of drawings, paintings or calligraphy of diverse artists. Sometimes, they were removed from earlier books, but sometimes created as separate pieces. The works of Reza Abbasi feature prominently in the contemporary art of the book. They depict two or more models, often romanticized beauties in a landscape setting, typically using grisaille techniques used previously to create border paintings for backgrounds.

Following the fall of the Safavids after the Safavids’ fall, the Qajars are an ancient Turkmen tribe that was established over times past on the shores of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art exhibits an increasing European influence, such as the huge oil paintings depicting Qajars and the Qajar shahs. Steelwork has also gained an increased importance. Much like the Ottomans as well, the Qajar Dynasty was able to survive until 1925, which was a couple of years following it was wiped out by the First World War.

Modern period
In the 15th century small Islamic courts started to decrease in the course of time, as the Ottoman Empire and, later the Safavids as well as European powers, ate the smaller ones up. This was a negative impact on Islamic art that was generally guided through the patronage and support of the courts. Since the 18th century, the elite Islamic art was becoming increasingly influenced by European styles. Later, the arts of applied, the majority adopting Western styles or stopped to develop, but retaining the style was in fashion at some point during the 18th or 19th century. A number of industries with lengthy histories, like pottery production in Iran which was largely shut down and others, such as the brass work of metal, were mostly stale and the bulk of their output going to the public or being sold as exotica from the oriental world.

The carpet industry is vast, however it mostly employs designs that were created prior to the year 1700. It competes with machines-made replicas locally and internationally. Arts and crafts that have more of a socially-based base such as tile mosaics made of zellige found in the Maghreb and the Maghreb, are usually more successfully. Islamic countries have seen the development of contemporary and modern art with a thriving art scene in certain nations, however the degree to which they are to be classified under a specific category of “Islamic arts” is a matter of debate, even though numerous artists work with Islamic themes and employ traditional elements, such as calligraphy. Particularly in the oil-rich regions within the Islamic world, much of the modern interior and architectural design utilizes themes and elements derived from the tradition that is Islamic art.

Islamic art isn’t in any way restricted to only religious art. It encompasses all the art forms of the many and diverse culture of Islamic societies too. It is often a mix of elements from the secular world and are considered unacceptable, even in some cases even forbidden by certain Islamic theologians. In addition to the ubiquitous calligraphic inscriptions, particularly religious art is less prevalent among Islamic art than Western medieval art and art, apart from Islamic architecture in which mosques and the complexes that surround them structures are the most frequent artifacts. Paintings depicting religious scenes can be used for scenes, but typically in predominantly secular settings like wall paintings of palaces, or illuminated poetry books. The calligraphy and ornamentation of Qur’an manuscripts is an important element however other art of the religious kind like glass lamps for mosques as well as other mosque fittings like tiles (e.g. Girih tiles), woodwork , and carpets generally have the same design and designs as modern secular art, with religious inscriptions , they are more prominent.

There are recurring elements within Islamic art, for instance using geometrical floral or vegetal designs , in repetition, also that is known as the arabesque. The arabesque symbolism in Islamic art is usually utilized to signify the eternal, unchangeable and unending quality of God. The repetition of mistakes can be purposely presented as a demonstration of the artist’s humility, by those who believe that only God can create perfection, though this notion is not accepted by all.

In general, but not always, Islamic art has focused on depicting patterns, whether they are floral or geometric, or Arabic calligraphy, instead of on human figures because there is a fear among many Muslims that depicting the human figure is idolatry, which is constitutes a sin against God and is prohibited in the Qur’an. Human representations can be seen across all periods that comprise Islamic art, and especially within the more intimate style of miniatures, in which their absence is extremely rare. Human representations that are for the purpose for worship has been deemed idolatry, and is therefore prohibited in certain ways that are part of Islamic law, which is also known by the name of Sharia law. There are numerous depictions of Muhammad the prophet of Islam in the history of Islamic art. Small , decorative images of human beings and animals, particularly those who hunt animals, are seen on secular artifacts in a variety of media of different times However, portraits took time to evolve.